A social movement is a sustained, collective form of organised or networked action through which people pursue, resist or promote social, political, cultural or economic change. Unlike a single protest event, a social movement normally involves continuing interaction among multiple individuals, groups or organisations connected by shared claims, identities, values or objectives.
Sociologist Mario Diani defines social movements as networks of informal interactions among a plurality of individuals, groups and organisations engaged in political or cultural conflicts on the basis of shared collective identities. Other influential approaches emphasise sustained campaigns, collective challenges and solidarity. Social movements can seek reform, preservation, revolution, rights expansion, rights restriction, cultural change or institutional transformation.
They can operate locally, nationally or transnationally and can use conventional political participation, protest, direct action, litigation, media campaigns, mutual aid or other methods. A movement therefore differs from a single organisation because it can contain many organisations and informal networks that cooperate without becoming one unified institution.
Collective identity is one of the most important concepts in social movement theory. A movement generally requires some sense of collective we that connects participants and distinguishes their shared cause from unrelated political activity. Collective identity can arise from common experiences, political beliefs, social positions, cultural identities or shared interpretations of a problem. It does not require complete agreement on every policy.
Environmental movements, labour movements and civil rights movements can contain substantial internal disagreement while retaining enough shared identity to coordinate action. Solidarity helps sustain participation because individuals can understand their involvement as part of a collective project rather than an isolated personal choice. Networks are equally important. Social movements often connect neighbourhood groups, unions, charities, campaign organisations, informal activist networks, online communities and individual participants. This network structure distinguishes movements from highly centralised organisations. A political party may have formal membership, leadership and internal rules, whereas a movement can remain relatively fluid while maintaining common campaigns and identities through repeated interaction.
Social movements normally develop through processes of mobilisation. Potential participants may share grievances or concerns without initially taking collective action. Mobilisation occurs when organisations, networks or leaders connect those concerns to opportunities for participation. Organisers communicate claims, recruit supporters, establish meetings, create campaigns and develop tactics. Resource mobilisation theory emphasises the importance of organisational resources such as money, staff, meeting spaces, communication networks, expertise and access to institutions. Other theories emphasise political opportunities, framing and collective identity.
No single theory explains every movement. Political opportunity structures can influence whether activists perceive institutional openings or vulnerabilities, while framing processes influence how people interpret an issue and whether they see collective action as necessary. Contemporary digital communication has changed mobilisation by enabling rapid information sharing and geographically dispersed coordination, but online communication does not eliminate the importance of organisations, relationships and sustained participation. Social movements are therefore produced through interactions among people, organisations and political environments.
Social movements use a repertoire of collective action rather than one fixed method. A movement can organise demonstrations, petitions, strikes, boycotts, public meetings, litigation, electoral campaigning, lobbying, occupations, community projects, mutual aid and online campaigns. Some movements deliberately use nonviolent resistance, while others historically have included violent factions. The choice of tactic depends on objectives, resources, political opportunities, legal conditions, organisational culture and perceptions of the target.
Protest is therefore one component of social movement activity rather than a synonym for the movement itself. A protest event can be organised by a movement, but the movement includes the relationships, organisations, identities and campaigns that exist before and after that event. Similarly, a petition can be one instrument used by a movement without constituting the entire movement. This distinction is important because social movement analysis focuses on sustained patterns of interaction rather than isolated acts. Research on protest movements similarly emphasises that individual protest events need connections, coordination and common programmes before they constitute a broader movement.
Social movements can be reformist or transformative. Reformist movements seek changes within existing institutions, such as new laws, improved rights, environmental regulations or changes to public services. Revolutionary movements seek much more fundamental changes to political or economic structures. Some movements seek to preserve existing arrangements against proposed change, meaning that social movement activity is not inherently progressive. Movements can advocate competing and even contradictory objectives.
This is why social movement should not be treated as a synonym for progressive activism. Historically, labour movements, feminist movements, nationalist movements, religious movements, environmental movements, civil rights movements and movements defending established social orders have all been studied within social movement research. The concept describes a form of collective organisation and contention rather than the desirability of the objective. Whether a movement succeeds, fails or produces unintended consequences depends on its interactions with institutions, opponents, other movements and broader social conditions.
Social movements differ from political parties, interest groups and organisations even though the boundaries can overlap. Political parties normally seek to contest elections and obtain governmental office, whereas social movements can seek influence without seeking office. Interest groups generally represent defined interests through lobbying, advocacy and institutional access, while movements may use broader collective identities and contentious action. A social movement organisation is a more formal body operating within a movement, such as a campaign group, association or advocacy organisation.
One movement can contain many such organisations. Movements can also become institutionalised over time, with organisations acquiring offices, staff, funding structures and formal membership. Institutionalisation may increase resources and policy access while potentially changing the movement's tactics or relationship with grassroots participants. This creates a recurring tension between organisational stability and movement flexibility. The distinction is therefore analytical rather than absolute. A political party can emerge from a social movement, an interest group can participate in a movement, and a movement organisation can later become highly professionalised while still identifying with the broader movement.
The historical development of social movement theory has moved through several major approaches. Earlier explanations sometimes emphasised collective psychology, mass behaviour or social dislocation. Later resource mobilisation theories highlighted organisational resources and strategic capacity. Political process approaches examined political opportunities and interactions with authorities. New social movement theories focused more heavily on identity, culture, lifestyle, post material concerns and new forms of collective action, particularly in advanced industrial societies.
Contemporary research commonly combines elements of these approaches rather than treating them as mutually exclusive. Digital communication has introduced additional questions about networked mobilisation, online participation and the relationship between virtual and physical collective action. Movements can now maintain international networks while organising local activities, but digital visibility does not necessarily translate into durable participation. The contemporary study of movements therefore examines organisational structures, identities, resources, political opportunities, framing, emotions, communication technologies and interactions with opponents.
The significance of social movements lies in their ability to create political participation outside formal institutions and to make collective claims that established organisations may not initially represent. They can introduce issues into public debate, change political agendas, create new identities, influence legislation, alter social norms and sometimes produce major institutional transformations. Their effects are nevertheless difficult to measure because outcomes can be indirect, delayed or produced through interaction with other actors.
A movement may fail to achieve its immediate demand but still change public discourse or create organisations that influence later politics. Conversely, a movement can achieve formal policy change without resolving the underlying social conflict that produced it. Social movements are therefore best understood as sustained networks of collective action rather than as simple groups with a single leader and membership list. Their defining elements are continuing interaction, shared claims or identity, collective action and a relationship with broader political or cultural conflict.
